From learners to users—errors, innovations, and universals

Abstract This paper looks into the dilemma of what counts as a grammatical ‘learner error’ in ELT on basis recent results from English variationist research and lingua franca research. Examples these studies show that features often perceived ‘errors’ for EFL speakers also occur ESL production—where they are called ‘innovations’—and even native language (ENL) term ‘spoken universal’ would seem more appropriate. It is proposed traditional categorization EFL, ESL, ENL actually hinders us seeing linguistic realities English-speaking world, disfavouring particular. The calls to see users rather than learners order acknowledge their creativity similar other English.